Urban Agriculture: A Pathway for Enhancing Food Security and Poverty Resiliency in Tanzania

Francis Mwaijande

doi:10.51867/ajernet.6.1.33

Authors

Francis Mwaijande
mwaijandef@gmail.com
Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, Mzumbe University, Tanzania https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5329-0932

Keywords:

Urban Agriculture, Food Security, Poverty, Resiliency, Policy

Abstract

This article provides both a theoretical and empirical evidence on the role of urban agriculture (UA) to food and nutrition security as well as poverty reduction in urban areas, which have persisted as policy challenges in Africa. While countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa have taken agricultural interventions at the centre of addressing food and nutrition security in rural areas, UA does not feature well in urban food and poverty reduction policies in Tanzania. This creates policy gaps between the global, regional and national policies towards attaining the Sustainable Development Goal-2 of Zero hunger by 2030 and the African Union Agenda 2063 on food and nutrition. This study derives from the nexus of theories of urban sprawls and urban food systems which consider urbanisation and the associated demographic changes posing unprecedented challenges in terms of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition. Based on a cross-sectional research design, the study employed a mixed-methods approach, collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, and a systematic review of the literature. A sample of 600 respondents was selected using purposive sampling from a target population of 6,000, consisting of adult male and female farmers, agri-food supply chain producers, food processors, input suppliers, distributors, and traders in urban and peri-urban areas of Tanzania. The study examined and confirmed the contribution of urban agriculture on food availability, accessibility, stability and utilization in urban households. A systematic literature review shows a multitude of benefits of urban agriculture on food availability, accessibility, nutrient utilization and stability. The examined literature shows potential of UA to overcome youth unemployment as they engage into urban agricultural activities and therefore contribute to income and poverty reduction. Findings provides an understanding of inadequate policy enabling environment for UA as n frameworks for increasing food security. However, UA is being practiced without legitimate policy and legal frameworks. The study recommends for institutionalization of UA as a pathway for attaining food and nutrition security and poverty reduction and therefore, calls for policy agenda setting to create space for UA in city policies and planning.

Dimensions

REFERENCES

Ackerman, K., Conard, M., Culligan, P., Plunz, R., Sutto, M. P., & Whittinghill, L. (2014). Sustainable food systems for future cities: The potential of urban agriculture. The Economic and Social Review, 4(2), 189-206.

Audate, P. P., Fernandez, M. A., Cloutier, G., & Lebel, A. (2018). Impacts of urban agriculture on the determinants of health: Scoping review protocol. JMIR Research Protocols, 7(3), e89. https://doi.org/10.2196/resprot.9427 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/resprot.9427

Ayambire, R. A., Amponsah, O., Peprah, C., & Takyi, S. A. (2019). A review of practices for sustaining urban and peri-urban agriculture: Implications for land use planning in rapidly urbanising Ghanaian cities. Land Use Policy, 84, 260-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.03.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.03.004

Ayerakwa, H. M. (2017). Urban households' engagement in agriculture: Implications for household food security in Ghana's medium-sized cities. Geographical Research, 55(2), 217-230. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-5871.12205 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-5871.12205

Badami, M. G., & Ramankutty, N. (2015). Urban agriculture and food security: A critique based on an assessment of urban land constraints. Global Food Security, 4, 8-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.003

Baker, L., & Zeeuw, H. (2015). Urban food policies and programmes: An overview. Routledge.

Bandara, W., & Syed, R. (2023). The role of protocol in a systematic literature review. Journal of Decision Systems, 33(4), 583-600. https://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2023.2217567 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2023.2217567

Bannor, R. K., Sharma, M., & Oppong-Kyeremeh, H. (2021). Extent of urban agriculture and food security: Evidence from Ghana and India. International Journal of Social Economics, 48(3), 437-455. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-08-2020-0519 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-08-2020-0519

Caka, F. (2022). Prospects for mainstreaming urban agriculture in Kosovo in support of sustainable urban development. International Journal of Environmental Impacts, 5(1), 23-37. https://doi.org/10.2495/EI-V5-N1-23-37 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2495/EI-V5-N1-23-37

Chihambakwe, M., Mafongoya, P., & Jiri, O. (2018). Urban and peri-urban agriculture as a pathway to food security: A review mapping the use of food sovereignty. Challenges, 10(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe10010006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/challe10010006

Christiaensen, L., & Maertens, M. (2022). Rural employment in Africa: Trends and challenges. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 14, 267-289. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-014312 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-014312

Crush, J., Frayne, B., & Pendleton, W. (2012). The crisis of food insecurity in African cities. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 7(2-3), 271-292. https://doi.org/10.1080/19320248.2012.702448 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19320248.2012.702448

Davies, J., Hannah, C., Guido, Z., Zimmer, A., McCann, L., Battersby, J., & Evans, T. (2021). Barriers to urban agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 103, 101999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101999 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101999

Deelstra, T., & Girardet, H. (2000). Urban agriculture and sustainable cities. In Bakker, N., Dubbeling, M., Gündel, S., Sabel-Koshella, U., & de Zeeuw, H. (Eds.), Growing cities, growing food: Urban agriculture on the policy agenda (pp. 43-66). Zentralstelle Für Ernährung Und Landwirtschaft (ZEL).

Diaz-Bonilla, E., Orden, D., & Kwieciński, A. (2014). Enabling environment for agricultural growth and competitiveness: Evaluation, indicators, and indices. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers, 67. https://doi.org/10.1787/5jz48305h4vd-en

Falcon, W. P., Naylor, R. L., & Shankar, N. D. (2022). Rethinking global food demand for 2050. Population and Development Review, 48(4), 921-957. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12508 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12508

FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO. (2021). The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2021: Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en

Filippini, R., Mazzochi, C., & Cosi, S. (2019). The contribution of urban food policies toward food security in developing and developed countries: A network analysis approach. Elsevier, Amsterdam. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101506 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101506

Frandsen, T. F., Bruun Nielsen, M. F., Lindhardt, C. L., & Eriksen, M. B. (2020). Using the full PICO model as a search tool for systematic reviews resulted in lower recall for some PICO elements. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 127, 69-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2020.07.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2020.07.005

Gebremichael, B., Beletew, B., Bimerew, M., Haile, D., Biadgilign, S., & Baye, K. (2022). Magnitude of urban household food insecurity in East Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health Nutrition, 25(4), 994-1004. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980021003529 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980021003529

Gómez-Villarino, M. T., Urquijo, J., Gómez Villarino, M., & García, A. I. (2021). Key insights of urban agriculture for sustainable urban development. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 45(10), 1441-1469. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2021.1917471 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2021.1917471

Hatab, A. A., Cavinato, M. E. R., Lindermer, A., & Lagerkvist, C. (2019). Urban sprawl, food security and agricultural systems in developing countries: A systematic review of literature. Cities, 94, 129-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.06.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.06.001

Ilieva, R. T., Cohen, N., Israel, M., & Specht, K. (2022). The social-cultural benefits of urban agriculture: A review of the literature. Land, 11(5), 622. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11050622 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/land11050622

IRP. (2021). Urban agriculture's potential to advance multiple sustainability goals. United Nations Environment Programme.

Jagganath, G. (2021). The transforming city: Exploring the potential for smart cities and urban agriculture in Africa. The Oriental Anthropologist, 22(1), 24-40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972558X211057162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0972558X211057162

Korth, M., Stewart, R., Langer, L., Madinga, N., Rebelo Da Silva, N., Zaranyika, H., Van Rooyen, C., & De Wet, T. (2014). What are the impacts of urban agriculture programs on food security in low and middle-income countries? A systematic review. Environmental Evidence, 3(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-3-21

Langemeyer, J., Madrid-Lopez, C., Mendoza Beltran, A., & Villalba Mendez, G. (2021). Urban agriculture-A necessary pathway towards urban resilience and global sustainability? Landscape and Urban Planning, Landscape and Urban Planning, 210(June 2021), 104055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104055

Liu, X., Xu, Y., Engel, B. A., Sun, S., Zhao, X., Wu, P., & Wang, Y. (2021). The impact of urbanization and aging on food security in developing countries: The view from Northwest China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 292, 126067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126067 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126067

Machado, R. C., & Cunha, S. K. D. (2022). From urban waste to urban farmers: Can we close the agriculture loop within the city bounds? Waste Management & Research, 40(3), 306-313. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X211068248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X211068248

Magombeyi, M. T., & Odhiambo, N. M. (2016). Poverty alleviation policies in Tanzania: Progress and challenges. EuroEconomica, 35(2), 48-60.

Magwaza, S. T., Magwaza, L. S., Odindo, A. O., & Mditshwa, A. (2020). Hydroponic technology as a decentralized system for domestic wastewater treatment and vegetable production in urban agriculture: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 698, 134154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134154 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134154

Manríquez-Altamirano, A., Sierra-Pérez, J., Muñoz, P., & Gabarrell, X. (2020). Analysis of urban agriculture solid waste in the frame of circular economy: Case study of tomato crop in integrated rooftop greenhouse. Science of the Total Environment, 734, 139375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139375 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139375

Maxwell, D., Levin, C., & Csete, J. (1998). Research in agricultural economics & applied economics. AgEcon Search, Discussion Paper, 45(18).

Mensah, J. K. (2023). Urban agriculture, local economy, and climate change: Conceptual linkages. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 15(1), 141-151. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2023.2207523 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2023.2207523

Mhache, E. P., & Lyamuya, E. (2019). The role of urban agriculture in alleviating poverty facing women in Tanzania: A review. Huria Journal, 26(2), 267-285.

Mkwambisi, D. D., Evan, F., & Dougill, A. J. (2011). Urban agriculture and poverty reduction: Evaluating how food production in cities contributes to food security, employment, and income in Malawi. Journal of International Development, 23, 181-203. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1657 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1657

Mlozi, C., Lupala, M. R. S., Chenyambuga, A., Liwenga, S. W. E., & Msogoya, T. (2014). Building urban resilience: Assessing urban and peri-urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. United Nations Environment Programme. https://www.unep.org

Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petlicrew, M., Shekelle, P., & Stewart, L. A. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 4(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-4-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-4-1

Mohsin, A. (2016). A manual for selecting sampling techniques in research. Munich Personal RePEC Archive. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/70218

Moragues-Faus, A., & Battersby, J. (2021). Urban food policies for a sustainable and just future: Concepts and tools for a renewed agenda. Food Policy, 103, 102124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102124 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102124

Muhsin, A. (2016). A manual for selecting sampling techniques in research. Iqra University Press.

NBS. (2020). Household budget survey 2017/18: Final report (Issue December, p. 168). National Bureau of Statistics.

NBS. (2022). Population and housing census. Ministry of Finance. National Bureau of Statistics.

Nickanor, N., Crush, J., & Pendleton, W. (2016). Migration, rural-urban linkages, and food insecurity. In Rapid urbanisation, urban food deserts and food security in Africa (pp. 127-142). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43567-1_10

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43567-1_10

Nogeire-McRae, T., Ryan, E. P., Jablonski, B. B. R., Carolan, M., Arathi, H. S., Brown, C. S., Saki, H. H., McKeen, S., Lapansky, E., & Schipanski, M. E. (2018). The role of urban agriculture in a secure, healthy, and sustainable food system. BioScience, 68(10), 748-759. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy071

Othman, N., Latip, R. A., Ariffin, M. H., & Mohamed, N. (2017). Expectancy in urban farming engagement. Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 2(6), 335-340. https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v2i6.948 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v2i6.948

Pearson, L., Newton, P. W., & Roberts, P. (Eds.). (2014). Resilient sustainable cities. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203593066 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203593066

Poulsen, M. N., McNab, P. R., Clayton, M. L., & Neff, R. A. (2015). A systematic review of urban agriculture and food security impacts in low-income countries. Food Policy, 55, 131-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.07.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.07.002

Sgroi, F., & Musso, D. (2022). Urban food strategies and sustainable agri-food systems: Results of empirical analysis in Palermo. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 10, 100436. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100436

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100436

Siegner, A., Sowerwine, J., & Acey, C. (2018). Does urban agriculture improve food security? Examining the nexus of food access and distribution of urban-produced foods in the United States: A systematic review. Sustainability, 10(9), 2988. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su10092988

https://doi.org/10.3390/su10092988

Smit, W. (2016). Urban governance and urban food systems in Africa: Examining the linkages. Cities, 58, 80-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.05.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.05.001

Smith, W., & Fabe, H. (2024). Food security in Tanzania: The challenge of urbanization. UN-Habitat.

Steenkamp, J., Cilliers, E. J., Cilliers, S. S., & Lategan, L. (2021). Food for thought: Addressing urban food security risks through urban agriculture. Sustainability, 13(3), 1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031267 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031267

Stewart, R., Korth, M., Langer, L., Madinga, N., Rebelo Da Silva, N., Zaranyika, H., Van Rooyen, C., & De Wet, T. (2014). What are the impacts of urban agriculture programs on food security in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Environmental Evidence, 3(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-3-21 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-3-21

Stewart, R., Korth, M., Langer, L., Rafferty, S. L., Silva, N. R. Da, & van Rooyen, C. (2013). What are the impacts of urban agriculture programs on food security in low and middle-income countries? Environmental Evidence, 2, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-7

Tate, C., Wang, R., Akaraci, S., Burns, C., Garcia, L., Clarke, M., & Hunter, R. (2024). The contribution of urban green and blue spaces to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals: An evidence gap map. Cities, 145, 104706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2023.104706 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2023.104706

Titz, A., & Chiotha, S. S. (2019). Pathways for sustainable and inclusive cities in Southern and Eastern Africa through urban green infrastructure? Sustainability, 11(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102729 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102729

Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O'Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., Moher, D., Peters, M. D. J., Horsley, T., Weeks, L., Hempel, S., Akl, E. A., Chang, C., McGowan, J., Stewart, L., Hartling, L., Aldcroft, A., Wilson, M. G., Garritty, C., Lewin, S., … Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation. Annals of internal medicine, 169(7), 467–473. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850

UNDESA. (2024). Assessing the status of implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development. United Nations.

UN-Habitat. (2024). Sustainable urbanization for Africa's transformation: Agenda 2063. United Nations Human Settlement programme, Nairobi.

URT. (2013). National agriculture policy. Ministry of Agriculture. Government Printers.

URT. (2021). National five-year development plan: Realizing competitiveness and industrialization for human development. Ministry of Finance, Government Printers.

Wang, X., & Cheng, Z. (2020). Cross-sectional studies: Strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations. Elsevier.

Warren, E., Hawkesworth, S., & Knai, C. (2015). Investigating the association between urban agriculture and food security, dietary diversity, and nutritional status: A systematic literature review. Food Policy, 53, 54-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.03.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.03.004

Weidner, T., Yang, A., & Hamm, M. W. (2019). Consolidating the current knowledge on urban agriculture in productive urban food systems: Learnings, gaps, and outlook. Journal of Cleaner Production, 209, 1637-1655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.004

WFP. (2021). Food systems in Tanzania: Investing in distribution to trigger systemic change (Issue November). World Food Programme, Rome.

WFP. (2023). WFP urban strategy: Achieving zero hunger in an urbanising world (Issue April). World Food Programme, Rome.

Yan, D., Liu, L., Liu, X., & Zhang, M. (2022). Global trends in urban agriculture research: A pathway toward urban resilience and sustainability. Land, 11(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11010117 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/land11010117

Zezza, A., & Tasciotti, L. (2010). Urban agriculture, poverty, and food security: Empirical evidence from a sample of developing countries. Food Policy, 35(4), 265-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.04.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.04.007