Effect of the whole-of-society approach on sustainable resource utilization in countering violent extremism operations in the Boni Theatre, Lamu County, Kenya (2015–2024)

Abstract

Resource mobilization, distribution and sustainability are key to the sustainability of Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) operations, including funding, infrastructure and human and material support. Since 2015, the Kenyan state has allocated security funding to the Boni Theatre in Lamu County, but it is clear that the resources are not being used effectively or equitably, as Al-Shabaab continues to attack the area and donors are still not arriving on time, nor are donor resources being fully utilized. The overall objective of this study was the assessment of the impact of the Whole-of-Society Approach (WoSA) on sustainable resource utilization in Boni Theatre in CVE operations 2015-2024. Drawing on Social Capital Theory, the study extends the theory by showing how bonding, bridging and linking capital can be used differently to facilitate resource diversification and local capacity-building in an ecologically fragile African borderland and by highlighting the theory's shortcomings in a structurally scarce and power imbalanced environment. A cross-sectional exploratory design with a mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining a quantitative survey with semi-structured key informant interviews. The target population of 2,645 comprised Kenya Defence Forces (KDF), National Police Service (NPS) and National Intelligence Service (NIS) personnel, community leaders, residents and non-governmental organization (NGO) representatives. A sample of 348 respondents was determined using Yamane’s formula, drawn through stratified and simple random sampling, while key informants were selected purposively. Structured questionnaires and interview guides were the data collection instruments. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha and validity through expert review and triangulation. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation and a one-sample t-test on SPSS version 27, while qualitative data were analyzed thematically using NVivo. The results from 301 usable questionnaires (86.5% response rate) indicate that WoSA moderately improves sustainable resource use (composite mean = 3.44, t (300) = 5.95, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.34) with the highest agreement on local human capital training (M = 3.87) and the lowest agreement on infrastructure sharing (M = 3.30) and ecosystem-based resource integration (M = 3.09). The six items used to assess resource utilization were largely independent (all |r| < 0.15, p > .05), indicating a fragmented rather than integrated resource system. The study findings that WoSA is helpful in resource diversification and capacity building, but that reliance on donors, gaps in infrastructure and environmental disturbances continue. Policy implications for Kenya’s National Counter Terrorism Centre (NCTC) include the need for dedicated enabling legislation, formalized multi-level coordination mechanisms with county governments and multi-year, adaptive funding frameworks that reduce donor dependency while strengthening joint logistics, anti-corruption audits and local human-resource training. These measures would promote long-term self-reliance in alignment with SDG 16 and Kenya Vision 2030.