Does how we teach entrepreneurship matter? Pedagogical practices, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and the moderating role of gender among graduate entrepreneurs in Tanzania
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.7.3.33Keywords:
Entrepreneurship Education, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, Gender, Graduate Entrepreneurs, PedagogyAbstract
Entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) is a key driver of graduate entrepreneurial success. However, university graduates in developing settings like Tanzania still report low confidence to start and run ventures, even after they complete entrepreneurship education (EE). The current study examined the contribution of entrepreneurship pedagogy, the “how” of teaching, on ESE development among Tanzanian graduate entrepreneurs. Also, the study contributes to the current literature on the role of gender as a moderator in the relationship between EE and ESE. A cross-sectional survey design through online structured questionnaires was employed, and data were collected from 228 graduate entrepreneurs majoring in entrepreneurship. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to determine the relationship between the study’s variables. The results indicate a positive and significant relationship between EE and ESE (β = 0.279, t = 2.169, p = 0.015). Also, the results revealed that gender and ESE are not significantly related, with females showing smaller effects than males (reference category) (β = −0.176, t = 1.215, p = 0.112). Further, it was found that there is no significant moderating effect of gender in the relationship between EE and ESE (β = 0.076, t = 0.499, p < 0.309). The findings confirm that experiential, role model-driven, and socially reinforcing pedagogical practices strengthen ESE among graduates, regardless of gender. Therefore, universities should adjust their entrepreneurship curricula to incorporate gender-responsive pedagogical practices, such as mentorship programs, experiential learning, and networking opportunities with successful local entrepreneurs from both genders. This will ensure equitable ESE development and better entrepreneurial performance among graduates.
Downloads
References
Aguirre-Urreta, M. I., & Hu, J. (2019). Detecting common method bias: Performance of Harman's single-factor test. Data Base for Advances in Information Systems, 50(2), 45-70. https://doi.org/10.1145/3330472.3330477
Alberti, F., Sciascia, S., & Poli, A. (2004, July). Entrepreneurship education: Notes on an ongoing debate. In Proceedings of the 14th Annual IntEnt Conference (Vol. 4, No. 7, pp. 1-26). University of Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy.
Amani, D., Ismail, I. J., Makona, A., Changalima, I. A., & Kazungu, I. (2024). Extending the mediation role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy on enhancing students' entrepreneurial intentions: A moderated mediation model. The International Journal of Management Education, 22(1), Article 100915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100915
Amsari, D., Wahyuni, E., & Fadhilaturrahmi. (2024). The social learning theory of Albert Bandura for elementary school students. Jurnal Basicedu, 8(2), 1654-1662. https://doi.org/10.31004/basicedu.v8i2.7247
Andrade, C. (2020). The limitations of online surveys. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 42(6), 575-576. https://doi.org/10.1177/0253717620957496
Bae, T. J., Qian, S., Miao, C., & Fiet, J. O. (2014). The relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions: A meta-analytic review. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 217-254. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12095
Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1978). Reflections on self-efficacy. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1(4), 237-269.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(78)90012-7
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
Bullough, A., Guelich, U., Manolova, T. S., & Schjoedt, L. (2022). Women's entrepreneurship and culture: Gender role expectations and identities, societal culture, and the entrepreneurial environment. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 985-996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00429-6
Caliendo, M., Kritikos, A. S., Rodríguez, D., & Stier, C. (2023). Self-efficacy and entrepreneurial performance of start-ups. Small Business Economics, 61(3), 1027-1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-022-00728-0
Chhabra, M., Gera, R., Hassan, R., & Hasan, S. (2020). An exploratory study of cognitive, social and normative dimensions of female entrepreneurship within transition economies: Evidence from India and Vietnam. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 14(4), 1012-1042.
Chidi, M. M., & Fatoki, O. (2021). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy and performance of small and medium enterprises in South Africa. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 20(6), 1-7. https://www.abacademies.org/articles/entrepreneurial-selfefficacy-and-performance-of-small-and-medium-enterprises-in-south-africa.pdf
Cui, J., Sun, J., & Bell, R. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial mindset of college students in China: The mediating role of inspiration and the role of educational attributes. The International Journal of Management Education, 17(1), 296-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.04.001
Dempsey, D., & Jennings, J. (2014). Gender and entrepreneurial self-efficacy: A learning perspective. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 6(1), 28-49. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-02-2013-0013
Duong, C. D., & Vu, N. X. (2023). Entrepreneurial education and intention: Fear of failure, self-efficacy and gender. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 31(4), 629-654. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-02-2023-0057
Elert, N., Andersson, F. W., & Wennberg, K. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education in high school on long-term entrepreneurial performance. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 111, 209-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.12.020
Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2008). From craft to science: Teaching models and learning processes in entrepreneurship education. Journal of European Industrial Training, 32(7), 569-593. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590810899838
Fayolle, A., & Gailly, B. (2015). The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial attitudes and intention: Hysteresis and persistence. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(1), 75-93. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12065
Fulgence, K. (2015). Assessing the status of entrepreneurship education courses in higher learning institutions: The case of Tanzania education schools. Education + Training, 57(2), 239-258. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-05-2013-0063
Garren, S. T., & Cleathero, B. A. (2024). Assessment of required sample sizes for estimating proportions. Asian Journal of Probability and Statistics, 26(7), 48-56. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajpas/2024/v26i7629
Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Danks, N. P., & Ray, S. (2021). An introduction to structural equation modeling. In Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using R: A workbook (pp. 1-29). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7_1
Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2-24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203
Hamid, M. R., Sami, W., & Sidek, M. H. M. (2017). Discriminant validity assessment: Use of Fornell-Larcker criterion versus HTMT criterion. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 890(1), Article 012163. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/890/1/012163
Hmieleski, K. M., & Corbett, A. C. (2008). The contrasting interaction effects of improvisational behavior with entrepreneurial self-efficacy on new venture performance and entrepreneur work satisfaction. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(4), 482-496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2007.04.002
Isaga, N. (2018). The relationship of personality to cognitive characteristics and SME performance in Tanzania. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 25(4), 667-686. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-02-2017-0067
https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-02-2017-0067
Ismail, I. J. (2022). Entrepreneurs' competencies and sustainability of small and medium enterprises in Tanzania: A mediating effect of entrepreneurial innovations. Cogent Business & Management, 9(1), Article 2111036. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2022.2111036
Jiatong, W., Murad, M., Bajun, F., Tufail, M. S., & Mirza, F. (2021). Impact of entrepreneurial education, mindset, and creativity on entrepreneurial intention: Mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 724440. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724440
Kalimasi, P. (2018). Assessment of entrepreneurship education trends in the formal education system in Tanzania. Business Management Review, 21(2), 53-65.
Kiyabo, K., & Isaga, N. (2020). Entrepreneurial orientation, competitive advantage, and SMEs' performance: Application of firm growth and personal wealth measures. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 9, Article 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-020-00123-7
Kock, N. (2015). Common method bias in PLS-SEM: A full collinearity assessment approach. International Journal of e-Collaboration, 11(4), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJeC.2015100101
Koellinger, P., Minniti, M., & Schade, C. (2013). Gender differences in entrepreneurial propensity. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 75(2), 213-234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00689.x
Kurfist, A. (2019). Building entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE): How undergraduate students make meaning of their entrepreneurial experiences (Doctoral dissertation, Old Dominion University). https://doi.org/10.25777/1wcp-a574
Kyari, A. K. (2020). The impact of university entrepreneurship education on financial performance of graduate entrepreneurs. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 23(1), 1-11.
Li, C., Bilimoria, D., Wang, Y., & Guo, X. (2020). Gender role characteristics and entrepreneurial self-efficacy: A comparative study of female and male entrepreneurs in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 585803. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.585803
Liñán, F., Jaén, I., & Rodríguez, M. J. (2024). Gender and sex in starting up: A social stereotype approach. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 36(3-4), 243-265. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2023.2295266
Lyu, J., Shepherd, D., & Lee, K. (2023). The effectiveness of university entrepreneurship activities on student start-up behavior. In D. Shepherd et al. (Eds.), The age of entrepreneurship education research: Evolution and future (pp. 161-204). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1074-754020230000023009
Lyu, J., Shepherd, D., & Lee, K. (2024). The impact of entrepreneurship pedagogy on nascent student entrepreneurship: An entrepreneurial process perspective. Studies in Higher Education, 49(1), 62-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2023.2220722
Mbunda, A. S., & Kapinga, A. F. (2021). Entrepreneurship teaching for self-employment among higher learning students in Tanzania: A lesson learnt from successful graduate entrepreneurs. Business Education Journal, 7(2).
https://doi.org/10.54156/cbe.bej.10.2.290
McGee, J. E., & Peterson, M. (2019). The long-term impact of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial orientation on venture performance. Journal of Small Business Management, 57(3), 720-737. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12324
Miao, C., Qian, S., & Ma, D. (2017). The relationship between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and firm performance: A meta-analysis of main and moderator effects. Journal of Small Business Management, 55(1), 87-107. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12240
Mwasalwiba, E., Dahles, H., & Wakkee, I. (2012). Graduate entrepreneurship in Tanzania: Contextual enablers and hindrances. European Journal of Scientific Research, 76(3), 386-402.
Naz, F., de Visser, R. O., & Mushtaq, M. (2022). Gender social roles: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 32(2), 189-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2021.1878971
Naz, F., de Visser, R. O., & Mushtaq, M. (2022). Gender social roles: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 32(2), 189-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2021.1878971
Ndibalema, I. C., John, E., & Msuya, O. W. (2024). Entrepreneurship education and financial performance of graduate-owned SMEs in Tanzania. African Business Management Journal, 2(2), 28-42.
https://doi.org/10.58548/2024abmj22.2842
Ndibalema, I. C., John, E., & Msuya, O. W. (2024). Exploring the role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy in the performance of graduate-owned small and medium-sized enterprises in Tanzania. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-03-2024-0146
Newman, A., Obschonka, M., Schwarz, S., Cohen, M., & Nielsen, I. (2019). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy: A systematic review of the literature on its theoretical foundations, measurement, antecedents, and outcomes, and an agenda for future research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 110, 403-419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.05.012
Ngek, N. B. (2015). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy and small business performance: The mediating effect of entrepreneurial mindset and openness to experience. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 13(4), 271-280.
Ngwoke, D. U., Ossai, O. V., Obikwelu, C. L., & Idoko, E. J. O. (2021). Impact of gender orientation on entrepreneurial self-efficacy of university undergraduates in Enugu State, Nigeria. The Educational Psychologist, 11(1), 219-226.
Niyonkuru, R. (2005). Entrepreneurship education at tertiary institutions in Rwanda: A situation analysis (Doctoral dissertation, University of the Western Cape).
Nowiński, W., Haddoud, M. Y., Lančarič, D., Egerová, D., & Czeglédi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44(2), 361-379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359
Ojochide, P., Asiyanbola, T., Eze, S., Fadeyi, O., Adewuyi, A., & Peter, A. (2024). Entrepreneurial pedagogy and self-efficacy of selected Nigerian undergraduates: Assessing the mediating role of entrepreneurial orientation. Journal of Harbin Engineering University, 45.
Ouni, S., & Boujelbene, Y. (2023). The mediating role of Big Five traits and self-efficacy on the relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial behavior: Study of Tunisian university graduate employees. Evaluation and Program Planning, 100, Article 102325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2023.102325
Petridou, E., Sarri, A., & Kyrgidou, L. P. (2009). Entrepreneurship education in higher educational institutions: The gender dimension. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 24(4), 286-309. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542410910961569
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Pramod, P. V., & Ramachandran, R. (2023). The entrepreneurial self-efficacy of micro-entrepreneurs: A social cognitive perspective. Forum for Social Economics, 54(2), 225-239. https://doi.org/10.1080/07360932.2023.2204204
Purwana, D., & Widyastuti, U. (2017). Does entrepreneurial university support entrepreneurship education? Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Management Studies, 4(2), 70-75. https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.70.75
https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.70.75
Ramalho, J., Carvalho, C., Parreira, P., Leite, E., Mónico, L., & Salgueiro-Oliveira, A. (2022). Entrepreneurship in higher education: The key role of self-efficacy-A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 9(2), 9-21. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2022.02.002
Rengiah, P. (2013). Effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in developing entrepreneurial intentions among Malaysian university students (Doctoral dissertation, Southern Cross University, Australia).
Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Sinkovics, N., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2023). A perspective on using partial least squares structural equation modelling in data articles. Data in Brief, 48, Article 109074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2023.109074
Santoso, J. D. (2020). Pengaruh entrepreneurship education dan entrepreneurial self-efficacy terhadap entrepreneurial intention dengan dimoderasi oleh gender. E-Jurnal Ilmiah Riset Akuntansi, 13(1), 519-530.
https://doi.org/10.31937/manajemen.v13i1.1942
Sarfaraz, L., Faghih, N., & Majd, A. (2014). The relationship between women entrepreneurship and gender equality. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 2, Article 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/2251-7316-2-6
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students (8th ed.). Pearson.
Selvam, D. S. I. K., & Banu, A. (2021). Social factors influencing entrepreneurship: A study with special reference to Theni district. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology, 7(4), 314-322. https://doi.org/10.32628/CSEIT217485
Setia, M. S. (2016). Cross-sectional studies. Indian Journal of Dermatology, 61(3), 261-264. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.182410
Shen, Y., Wang, Q., Hua, D., & Zhang, Z. (2021). Entrepreneurial learning, self-efficacy, and firm performance: Exploring the moderating effect of entrepreneurial orientation. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 731628. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731628
Shinnar, R. S., Hsu, D. K., & Powell, B. C. (2014). Self-efficacy, entrepreneurial intentions, and gender: Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education longitudinally. The International Journal of Management Education, 12(3), 561-570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2014.09.005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2014.09.005
Silberman, D., Aguinis, H., & Carpenter, R. E. (2023). Using extreme pedagogy to enhance entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship Education and Pedagogy, 6(3), 546-560. https://doi.org/10.1177/25151274221144218
Singh, K. (2020). Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial self-efficacy of students at UiTM Sarawak. ASEAN Entrepreneurship Journal, 6(2), 1-7.
Singh, S., & Sagar, R. (2021). A critical look at online survey or questionnaire-based research studies during COVID-19. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 65, Article 102850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102850
Soomro, B. A., & Shah, N. (2022). Entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, need for achievement and entrepreneurial intention among commerce students in Pakistan. Education + Training, 64(1), 107-125. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-01-2021-0023
Srimulyani, V. A., & Hermanto, Y. B. (2022). Impact of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial motivation on micro and small business success for the food and beverage sector in East Java, Indonesia. Economies, 10(1), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10010010
Tundui, H. P. (2012). Gender and small business growth in Tanzania: The role of habitus (Doctoral dissertation, University of Groningen). https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/14674223/thesis.pdf
Verduijn, K., & Berglund, K. (2020). Pedagogical invention in entrepreneurship education: Adopting a critical approach in the classroom. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 26(5), 973-988. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-04-2018-0274
Wardana, L. W., Narmaditya, B. S., Wibowo, A., Mahendra, A. M., Wibowo, N. A., Harwida, G., & Rohman, A. N. (2020). The impact of entrepreneurship education and students' entrepreneurial mindset: The mediating role of attitude and self-efficacy. Heliyon, 6(9), Article e04922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04922
Warnecke, T. (2013). Entrepreneurship and gender: An institutional perspective. Journal of Economic Issues, 47(2), 455-464. https://doi.org/10.2753/JEI0021-3624470219
Wei, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, J. (2020). How does entrepreneurial self-efficacy influence innovation behavior? Exploring the mechanism of job satisfaction and Zhongyong thinking. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 708. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00708
Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 387-406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00179.x
Wu, L., Jiang, S., Wang, X., Yu, L., Wang, Y., & Pan, H. (2022). Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions of college students: The mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and the moderating role of entrepreneurial competition experience. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 727826.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.727826
Yeh, C.-H., Lin, H.-H., Wang, Y.-M., Wang, Y.-S., & Lo, C.-W. (2021). Investigating the relationships between entrepreneurial education, self-efficacy, and performance in the context of internet entrepreneurship. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), Article 100565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100565
Zhao, H., Hills, G. E., & Seibert, S. E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1265-1272. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1265
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ivonne Charles Ndibalema, Dr. Elia John, Dr. Ombeni William Msuya
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
