Information and communication technologies [ICT] and competency-based education in developing economies: A critical review of adoption models, outcomes, and implications for East Africa

Abstract

Developing economies increasingly rely on Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to transform education systems, coinciding with a shift toward Competency-Based Education (CBE), a reform agenda focused on learning outcomes and skills acquisition. In East Africa, national policies link ICT adoption with CBE goals, envisioning technology as a vehicle for equitable, personalized, and skills-oriented learning. However, evidence connecting ICT integration to actual competency development remains limited and inconsistent. This review is theoretically grounded in three complementary frameworks: the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which explain individual and organizational drivers of ICT adoption, and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, which illuminates the integrated competencies teachers require to leverage technology for effective, content-specific instruction. Drawing on these frameworks, the review examines ICT adoption trends, theoretical models, and empirical evidence from thirty-seven peer-reviewed studies focused on Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Uganda. Through systematic analysis of technology adoption patterns, pedagogical practices, and implementation challenges, the study identifies persistent gaps in infrastructure, teacher preparedness, assessment capacity, and outcome-focused evaluation. The findings reveal a critical disconnect between technology availability and educational outcomes, particularly in low-resource settings where connectivity, teacher training, and institutional capacity remain uneven. In response, the review advances a set of actionable recommendations. First, it calls for reorienting ICT investments toward outcome-oriented integration, prioritizing interventions that explicitly link technology use to competency development, formative assessment, and authentic performance tasks. Second, it recommends systematic, TPACK-informed teacher professional development, moving beyond basic digital skills to sustained, subject-specific support that enables teachers to design and facilitate competency-based, and technology-enhanced learning. Third, it proposes innovation in digital assessment systems, including the development and piloting of ICT-enabled formative and adaptive assessments aligned with CBE frameworks. Fourth, it urges context-sensitive policies and implementation strategies, such as targeted support to rural and underserved schools, school-level leadership development, and mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating ICT-CBE initiatives using robust learning outcome indicators. By synthesizing fragmented evidence, critiquing existing theoretical frameworks for developing-economy contexts, and articulating this research and policy agenda, the review provides concrete guidance for policymakers, educators, and researchers seeking to align ICT investments with competency-based educational transformation in East Africa.