Implications of avocado farming on income and food diversification among smallholders in Njombe, Tanzania

Abstract

Avocado has gained popularity as a high-value crop that could improve rural livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa, yet there is limited field-based evidence on how growing avocado actually changes what farmers earn and what they consume, especially when considering whether concentrating on a single crop makes households less resilient in the face of risks. This study investigates how avocado farming affects income diversification and food consumption among 305 smallholder households surveyed in the Njombe Region, Tanzania, drawing on the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) as a theoretical proposition anchored. Data were collected through structured household surveys in a cross-sectional design. Three analytical methods were applied: analysis of variance (ANOVA) for comparing income across three avocado participation intensity groups, a Simpson Income Diversity Index (SIDI) analyzed through fractional logit regression for income diversification determinants, and an ordered logit model for household food consumption measured by the Food Consumption Score (FCS). ANOVA results showed that income differed significantly across the three groups, with farmers who grow avocado more intensively earning considerably more. The fractional logit model indicated that higher avocado involvement reduces income diversification chance (coefficients of -0.620 at p < 0.01 for medium intensity and -2.068 at p < 0.001 for high intensity), emphasizing a shift toward specialization. Nevertheless, the ordered logit results showed that avocado participation improves food security: none of the high-intensity farmers fell into the ‘poor’ food consumption category compared with 18.2% of low-intensity farmers (χ² = 24.76, p < 0.001). Education level, access to financial services, and marital status positively influenced income diversification, while household income and participation intensity were the main factors behind better food consumption. The findings point to a need for policies that balance avocado intensity with livelihood diversification, expand financial access, and integrate nutrition awareness into agricultural extension.