Assessment of resilient capacities of typical and entrepreneurial dairy farms in Narok-Bomet and Nyandarua counties, Kenya

Elizabeth Otunga Wasike; Bockline O. Bebe; Olivier Kashongwe; James Ondiek; Jan van der Lee

doi:10.51867/ajernet.6.4.16

Authors

Elizabeth Otunga Wasike
eotunga76@gmail.com
Egerton Univesity, Kenya
Bockline O. Bebe Egerton University, Kenya https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3547-0104
Olivier Kashongwe Egerton Univesity, Kenya https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6107-4084
James Ondiek Egerton University, Kenya https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5203-573X
Jan van der Lee Wageningen University, Netherlands https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9792-9120

Keywords:

Capacities, Dairy Growth, Market Access, Resilience Indicators, Resilience, Social Networks

Abstract

The dairy sector in Kenya is constrained by recurrent shocks spanning from climate change, which adversely intensifies production risks, to market risks coupled with poor infrastructural and technological advancement and institutional and financial risks. A move towards a robust, reliable, adaptive intensification and resilient dairy sector would ensure sustainability of the dairy farms in the face of these constant and intense shocks. This study examined the resilience capacities of 120 typical and entrepreneurial farms in Nyandarua County, with advanced dairy growth stage, and Narok County, with dairy growth at its inception phase. It is assumed that typical and entrepreneurial farms have different resilience capacities, with entrepreneurial farms perceived to be richly endowed and skilled, conferring higher resilience scores than typical dairy farms, which are also affected by environmental contexts. The resilience theory provides a platform for comprehending how farming systems react to risks and shocks through the three resilience frameworks, namely absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacities. The study adopted a comparative cross-sectional design, aiming to explore differences in risk perception and coping strategies between typical and entrepreneurial dairy farmers. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires and analyzed statistically. Using the stratified sampling method, cooperatives were identified, and a list of farmers selling to the cooperatives was categorized as typical if they sold up to 50 liters of milk with no increase over the last 5 years. Otherwise, they were entrepreneurial farmers if they consistently sold over 50 liters of milk with growth over the same period. Indicators for resilience were captured by use of indicators for absorptive, adaptive, and transformative resilience capacities. The indicators were first standardized and then weighted through Principle Component Analysis (PCA) using SPSS version 23 and finally fitted into a fractional regression model to generate the resilience indices. Absorptive and adaptive capacities were weak in both farm groups, with information systems, social networks, and human capital indicators being underutilized, whereas physical assets contributed significantly to these frameworks. Greater transformative capacity was demonstrated by entrepreneurial farms than in typical farms, with institutional and infrastructural indicators contributing significantly to the index. The overall resilience for both farm types was below 0.5, indicating an overall systemic vulnerability. Entrepreneurial farms had statistically higher resilience scores than typical farms. Enhancing resilience across the two farm types calls for strengthened human capital, social capital, extension services, and investment in infrastructure, which supports dairy farming.

Dimensions

REFERENCES

Asmamaw, M., Mereta, S. T., & Ambelu, A. (2019). Exploring households' resilience to climate change-induced shocks using Climate Resilience Index in Dinki watershed, central highlands of Ethiopia. PLOS ONE, 14(7), e0219393. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219393 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219393

Asmamaw, M., Mereta, S. T., & Terefe, Y. (2017). Building community resilience to climate change: An approach for transforming development. Environmental Systems Research, 6(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0083-1

Bahta, Y. T., & Lombard, W. A. (2023). Nexus between social vulnerability and resilience to agricultural drought amongst South African smallholder livestock households. Atmosphere, 14(5), 900.

https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050900 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050900

Bebe, B. O., Rademaker, C. J., van der Lee, J., Kilelu, C. W., & Tonui, C. (2017). Sustainable growth of the Kenyan dairy sector: A quick scan of robustness, reliability and resilience: Executive summary (No. 1021). Wageningen Livestock Research. https://doi.org/10.18174/413390 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18174/413390

Bec, A., McLennan, C. L., & Moyle, B. D. (2016). Community resilience to long-term tourism decline and rejuvenation: A literature review and conceptual model. Current Issues in Tourism, 19(5), 431-457.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1083538 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1083538

Bengtsson, C., Thomasen, J. R., Kargo, M., Bouquet, A., & Slagboom, M. (2022). Emphasis on resilience in dairy cattle breeding: Possibilities and consequences. Journal of Dairy Science, 105(9), 7588-7599.

https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-21049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-21049

Berkes, F., & Ross, H. (2016). Panarchy and community resilience: Sustainability science and policy implications. Environmental Science & Policy, 61, 185-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.04.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.04.004

Boka, G. T., & John, C. (2017). Climate change challenges, smallholder commercialization and progress out poverty in Ethiopia. Working Paper Series (253).

Burke, W. J., & Jayne, T. S. (2010). Spatial disadvantages or spatial poverty traps: Household evidence from rural Kenya (International Development Working Paper No. 54560). Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.54560

Cafer, A., Green, J., & Goreham, G. (2022). A community resilience framework for community development practitioners building equity and adaptive capacity. In Community development for times of crisis (pp. 56-74). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003212652-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003212652-5

Cinner, J. E., & Barnes, M. L. (2019). Social dimensions of resilience in social-ecological systems. One Earth, 1(1), 51-56.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.08.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.08.003

Cochrane, L., & Cafer, A. (2018). Does diversification enhance community resilience? A critical perspective. Resilience, 6(2), 129-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/21693293.2017.1406849 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21693293.2017.1406849

Coquil, X., Béguin, P., & Dedieu, B. (2014). Transition to self-sufficient mixed crop-dairy farming systems. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 29(3), 195-205. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170513000458 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170513000458

Cumming, G. S., Morrison, T. H., & Hughes, T. P. (2017). New directions for understanding the spatial resilience of social-ecological systems. Ecosystems, 20(4), 649-664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-0089-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-0089-5

Cutter, S. L., Barnes, L., Berry, M., Burton, C., Evans, E., Tate, E., & Webb, J. (2008). A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change, 18(4), 598-606.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.07.013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.07.013

Dardonville, M., Urruty, N., Bockstaller, C., & Therond, O. (2020). Influence of diversity and intensification level on vulnerability, resilience and robustness of agricultural systems. Agricultural Systems, 184, 102913.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102913 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102913

Darnhofer, I. (2021). Farming resilience: From maintaining states towards shaping transformative change processes. Sustainability, 13(6), 3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063387 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063387

Debie, E., & Ayele, A. W. (2023). Perceived determinants of smallholder households' resilience to livelihood insecurity in Goncha District, Northwest highlands of Ethiopia. Sage Open, 13(3), 21582440231184861.

https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231184861 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231184861

Duranovich, F., Shadbolt, N. M., Dooley, A. E., & Gray, D. I. (2015, June). Dairy farm owners, their resilience attributes, and how they relate to their perception and management of risk. In Proceedings of the Paper Presented at the Scientific Research Symposium of the 25th World Conference of the International Food & Agribusiness Management Association (IFAMA), St. Paul, MI, USA (pp. 14-15).

Egamberdiev, B. (2024). Social capital effects on resilience to food insecurity: Evidence from Kyrgyzstan. Journal of International Development, 36(1), 435-450. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3826 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3826

Feye, G. L. (2018). Perceptions and governance of food insecurity risks among family farmers in Southwestern Ethiopia [Doctoral dissertation, Universitäts-und Landesbibliothek Bonn].

Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Chapin, T., & Rockström, J. (2010). Resilience thinking: Integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability. Ecology and Society, 15(4), Article 20.

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03610-150420 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03610-150420

Frankenberger, T., Choularton, R., Kurtz, J., & Nelson, S. (2015). Measuring shocks and stressors as part of resilience measurement. Food Security Information Network. Resilience Measurement Technical Working Group Technical Series No. 5. Rome, Italy.

Frankenberger, T., Constas, M., Nelson, S., & Starr, L. (2014). Resilience programming among nongovernmental organizations: Lessons for policy makers. USAID. https://www.usaid.gov/resilience

Gbetibouo, G. A., Hassan, R. M., & Ringler, C. (2010). Modelling farmers' adaptation strategies for climate change and variability: The case of the Limpopo Basin, South Africa. Agrekon, 49(2), 217-234.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2010.491294 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2010.491294

Grafton, R. Q., Doyen, L., Béné, C., Borgomeo, E., Brooks, K., Chu, L., Cumming, G. S., Dixon, J., Dovers, S., Garrick, D., Helfgott, A., Jiang, Q., Katic, P., Kompas, T., Little, L. R., Matthews, N., Ringler, C., Squires, D., Steinshamn, S. I., ... Wyrwoll, P. R. (2019). Realizing resilience for decision-making. Nature Sustainability, 2(10), 907-913.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0376-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0376-1

Haider, L. J., & Cleaver, F. (2023). Capacities for resilience: Persisting, adapting and transforming through bricolage. Ecosystems and People, 19(1), 2240434. https://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2023.2240434 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2023.2240434

Hassn, M. M., & Akkermans, L. (2022). Adaptive capacity of dairy farmers in Ziway-Shashemene milkshed, Ethiopia. Advances, 3(1), 5-10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6902503 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6902503

Kassie, M., Teklewold, H., Marenya, P., Jaleta, M., & Erenstein, O. (2015). Production risks and food security under alternative technology choices in Malawi: Application of a multinomial endogenous switching regression. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 66(3), 640-659. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12099 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12099

Khan, N., Yaqoob, I., Hashem, I. A. T., Inayat, Z., Mahmoud Ali, W. K., Alam, M., ... & Gani, A. (2014). Big data: Survey, technologies, opportunities, and challenges. The Scientific World Journal, 2014(1), 712826.

https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/712826 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/712826

Knickel, K., Redman, M., Darnhofer, I., Ashkenazy, A., Chebach, T. C., Šūmane, S., & Rogge, E. (2018). Between aspirations and reality: Making farming, food systems and rural areas more resilient, sustainable and equitable. Journal of Rural Studies, 59, 197-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.04.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.04.012

Kruse, S., & Pütz, M. (2014). Adaptive capacities of spatial planning in the context of climate change in the European Alps. European Planning Studies, 22(12), 2620-2638. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2013.860516 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2013.860516

Levine, S. (2014). Assessing resilience: Why quantification misses the point. Humanitarian Policy Group Working Paper, ODI, London.

Maltou, R., & Bahta, Y. T. (2019). Factors influencing the resilience of smallholder livestock farmers to agricultural drought in South Africa: Implication for adaptive capabilities. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 11(1), 1-7.

https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v11i1.805 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v11i1.805

Marshal, M. P., Burton, C. M., Chisolm, D. J., Sucato, G. S., & Friedman, M. S. (2013). Cross‐sectional evidence for a stress‐negative affect pathway to substance use among sexual minority girls. Clinical and Translational Science, 6(4), 321-322. https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12052

Maru, L., & Chemjor, R. (2013). Microfinance interventions and empowerment of women entrepreneurs rural constituencies in Kenya. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 4(9), 84-95.

Mendoza, T. C., Furoc-Paelmo, R., Makahiya, H. A., & Mendoza, B. C. (2019). Strategies for scaling up the adoption of organic farming towards building climate change resilient communities. In Global climate change and environmental policy: Agriculture perspectives (pp. 125-146). Springer Nature Singapore.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9570-3_4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9570-3_4

Meuwissen, M. P., Feindt, P. H., Spiegel, A., Termeer, C. J., Mathijs, E., De Mey, Y., ... & Reidsma, P. (2019). A framework to assess the resilience of farming systems. Agricultural Systems, 176, 102656.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102656 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102656

Mizik, T. (2021). Climate-smart agriculture on small-scale farms: A systematic literature review. Agronomy, 11(6), 1096.

https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11061096 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11061096

Nettle, R., Ayre, M., Beilin, R., Waller, S., Turner, L., Hall, A., Irvine, L., & Taylor, G. (2015). Empowering farmers for increased resilience in uncertain times. Animal Production Science, 55(7), 843-855. https://doi.org/10.1071/AN14882

https://doi.org/10.1071/AN14882 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AN14882

Noriega, I. L., Dawson, I. K., Vernooy, R., Köhler-Rollefson, I., & Halewood, M. (2017). Agricultural diversification as an adaptation strategy. Agriculture for Development, 30, 25-28.

Norris, F. H., Stevens, S. P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K. F., & Pfefferbaum, R. L. (2008). Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(1-2), 127-150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9156-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9156-6

O'Brien, K. (2012). Global environmental change II: From adaptation to deliberate transformation. Progress in Human Geography, 36(5), 667-676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132511425767 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132511425767

Odero-Waitituh, J. A. (2017). Dairy farming in Kenya: Resource constraints and opportunities. International Journal of Livestock Production, 8(2), 1-10. https://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd29/7/atiw29139.html

Oloo, J. O., & Omondi, P. (2017). Strengthening local institutions as avenues for climate change resilience. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, 8(5), 573-588. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDRBE-12-2013-0047 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDRBE-12-2013-0047

Ortiz, R., & Peris, J. (2022). The role of farmers' umbrella organizations in building transformative capacity around grassroots innovations in rural agri-food systems in Guatemala. Sustainability, 14(5), 2695.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052695 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052695

Osumba, J. J., Recha, J. W., & Oroma, G. W. (2021). Transforming agricultural extension service delivery through innovative bottom-up climate-resilient agribusiness farmer field schools. Sustainability, 13(7), 3938.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073938 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073938

Peng, L., Tan, J., Deng, W., & Liu, Y. (2020). Farmers' participation in community-based disaster management: The role of trust, place attachment and self-efficacy. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 51, 101895.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101895 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101895

Perin, L., San Cristobal, M., Milestad, R., & Martin, G. (2020). Identification of resilience factors of organic dairy cattle farms. Agricultural Systems, 183, 102875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102875 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102875

Rademaker, C. J., Bebe, B. O., Van Der Lee, J., Kilelu, C., & Tonui, C. (2016). Sustainable growth of the Kenyan dairy sector: A quick scan of robustness, reliability and resilience. Report 3R Kenya/WLR No. 979; 66 pp. Wageningen Livestock Research. https://doi.org/10.18174/391018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18174/391018

Ramilan, T., Kumar, S., Haileslassie, A., Craufurd, P., Scrimgeour, F., Kattarkandi, B., & Whitbread, A. (2022). Quantifying farm household resilience and the implications of livelihood heterogeneity in the semi-arid tropics of India. Agriculture, 12(4), 466. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12040466 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12040466

Ross, H., Haque, C. E., & Berkes, F. (2024). Transmission of knowledge and social learning for disaster risk reduction and building resilience: A Delphi study. Sustainable Development, 32(2), 1525-1537.

https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2685 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2685

Rudberg, P. M., & Karpouzoglou, T. (2022). Using adaptive capacity to shift absorptive capacity: A framework of water reallocation in highly modified rivers. Water, 14(2), 193. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14020193 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w14020193

Shadbolt, N., Olubode-Awosola, F., & Rutsito, B. (2017). Resilience in dairy farm businesses; to 'bounce without breaking'. Journal of Advances in Agriculture, 7(3), 1138-1150. https://doi.org/10.24297/jaa.v7i3.6401 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24297/jaa.v7i3.6401

Shittu, E., Parker, G., & Mock, N. (2018). Improving communication resilience for effective disaster relief operations. Environment Systems and Decisions, 38(3), 379-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-018-9694-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-018-9694-5

Shokri, E. (2022). Perceived adaptive capacity of New Zealand dairy farmers in the face of policy and economic volatility [Doctoral dissertation, Massey University].

Sinclair, F., Swaffield, S., & Oldfield, R. (2022). Ecosystem thresholds and learning in resilient agriculture. Environmental Science & Policy, 132, 111-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.05.016

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.05.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.05.016

Slijper, T., Urquhart, J., Poortvliet, P. M., Soriano, B., & Meuwissen, M. P. (2022). Exploring how social capital and learning are related to the resilience of Dutch arable farmers. Agricultural Systems, 198, 103385.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103385 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103385

Spiegel, A., Soriano, B., de Mey, Y., Slijper, T., Urquhart, J., Bardají, I., ... & Meuwissen, M. (2020). Risk management and its role in enhancing perceived resilience capacities of farms and farming systems in Europe. EuroChoices, 19(2), 45-53.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12284 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12284

Šūmane, S., Kunda, I., Knickel, K., Strauss, A., Tisenkopfs, T., des Ios Rios, I., & Ashkenazy, A. (2018). Local and farmers' knowledge matters! How integrating informal and formal knowledge enhances sustainable and resilient agriculture. Journal of Rural Studies, 59, 232-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.01.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.01.020

Taghipoor, M., Pastell, M., Martin, O., Ba, H. N., van Milgen, J., Doeschl-Wilson, A., & Muñoz-Tamayo, R. (2023). Animal board invited review: Quantification of resilience in farm animals. Animal, 17(9), 100925.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2023.100925 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2023.100925

Tambo, J. A. (2016). Adaptation and resilience to climate change and variability in north-east Ghana. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 17, 85-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.04.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.04.005

Tambo, J. A., & Wünscher, T. (2017). Enhancing resilience to climate shocks through farmer innovation: Evidence from northern Ghana. Regional Environmental Change, 17(5), 1505-1514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1113-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1113-9

Tesso, G., Emana, B., & Ketema, M. (2012). Analysis of vulnerability and resilience to climate change induced shocks in North Shewa, Ethiopia. Agricultural Sciences, 3(6), 871. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2012.36106 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2012.36106

Tiwari, S., Amin, F., & Gupta, A. K. (2023, November). Blending indigenous and scientific knowledge for effective risk reduction. In International Conference on Advances in Health, Safety, Fire, Environment, Allied Sciences and Sustainability (pp. 301-317). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4047-8_24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4047-8_24

Tofu, D. A., Dilbato, T., Fana, C., Dirbaba, N. B., & Tesso, G. (2025). Analysis of vulnerability, its drivers, and strategies applied towards reducing the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood vulnerability to climatic shocks. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 2567. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-79165-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-79165-w

Urruty, N., Tailliez-Lefebvre, D., & Huyghe, C. (2016). Stability, robustness, vulnerability and resilience of agricultural systems. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0347-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0347-5

Van der Lee, J., Kangogo, D., Gülzari, Ş. Ö., Dentoni, D., Oosting, S., Bijman, J., & Klerkx, L. (2022). Theoretical positions and approaches to resilience assessment in farming systems. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 42(2), 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00755-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00755-x

Weldegebriel, Z. B., & Amphune, B. E. (2017). Livelihood resilience in the face of recurring floods: An empirical evidence from Northwest Ethiopia. Geoenvironmental Disasters, 4, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-017-0074-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40677-017-0074-0

Williams, T. G., Guikema, S. D., Brown, D. G., & Agrawal, A. (2020). Resilience and equity: Quantifying the distributional effects of resilience-enhancing strategies in a smallholder agricultural system. Agricultural Systems, 182, 102832.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102832 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102832

Wolfram, M., Borgström, S., & Farrelly, M. (2019). Urban transformative capacity: From concept to practice. Ambio, 48(5), 437-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01169-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01169-y

Zseleczky, L., & Yosef, S. (2014). Are shocks really increasing? A selective review of the global frequency, severity, scope, and impact of five types of shocks (IFPRI Conference Paper No. 5). International Food Policy Research Institute.